For over half a century, corruption in the Philippines has continuously functioned as an episodic failure of governance—a defining feature of the country’s political landscape. From the Spanish-era principalia and the elite-centered electoral system introduced under American rule, Philippine political life has long been structured by personal ties rather than impersonal institutions (Quimpo, 2009). The presidency of Ferdinand Marcos in the late 1970s-1980s exemplifies this le